Power Management in Grid-Scale Energy Storage Systems; A Case Study of Trends

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Renewable Energy Department, Niroo Research Institute (NRI), Tehran, Iran

2 Transmission Expansion Planning Office, Power Generation Transmission and Distribution Company (TAVANIR), Tehran, Iran

3 Energy and Mechanical Department, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

10.22104/hfe.2025.7131.1318

Abstract

The global energy crisis poses a major challenge, driven by the depletion of fossil fuel reserves and the escalating impacts of climate change. In response, the transition to renewable energy sources, particularly solar and wind power, is accelerating to address these pressing issues. However, renewable energy systems require efficient storage solutions to enhance energy utilization and ensure a stable, resilient power grid. Energy storage systems play versatile roles within power grids, including peak shaving, fast frequency response, voltage stability, and power quality enhancement. This study examines the trends and current status of various energy storage technologies, highlighting lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries as particularly promising. While pumped-hydro storage currently accounts for approximately 95% of total storage capacity, Li-ion batteries demonstrate substantial potential for future applications. A case study highlights utility-scale applications of energy storage systems in Iran’s power system, emphasizing peak-shaving, load-leveling, power quality improvement, and energy efficiency enhancement. Energy storage plays a critical role in Iran, particularly for peak shifting and load leveling. In the summer of 2023, Iran's peak energy consumption reached approximately 80,000 MW, with an average demand of 64,000 MW during peak seasons. Diesel generators, with a grid capacity of approximately 1000 MW, serve as Iran's primary emergency power supply system. A comparison of the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, identified as an optimal fast-response system in Iran, revealed that diesel generation is more expensive, even without accounting for CO2 emission costs. Given Iran's significant lithium reserves, estimated at 8.5 million metric tons, Li-ion batteries have the potential to emerge as the dominant energy storage solution both domestically and globally.

Keywords

Main Subjects


[2] Satpathy R, Pamuru V. Off-grid solar photovoltaic systems; 2021. Available from: https:
//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:230595937.
[3] Esparcia Jr EA, Castro MT, Odulio CMF, Ocon JD. A stochastic techno-economic comparison of generation-integrated long duration flywheel, lithium-ion battery, and lead-acid battery energy storage technologies for isolated microgrid applications. Journal of Energy Storage. 2022;52:104681.
[4] El Haj Assad M, Khosravi A, Malekan M, Rosen M, Nazari M. Chapter 14-Energy storage. Design and Performance Optimization of Renewable Energy Systems; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA. 2021;.
[5] Arabkoohsar A. Classification of energy storage systems. In: Future Grid-Scale Energy Storage Solutions. Elsevier; 2023. p. 1–30.
[6] Abdin Z, Khalilpour KR. Single and polystorage technologies for renewable-based hybrid energy
systems. In: Polygeneration with polystorage for chemical and energy hubs. Elsevier; 2019. p. 77–131.
[7] Foroozandeh Z, Ramos S, Soares J, Canizes B. Energy Storage Management System for Smart Home: an Economic Analysis. In: 2021 IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies-Asia (ISGT Asia). IEEE; 2021. p. 1–5.
[8] Spiers; 2018. 3rd edition.
[9] Saravi VS, Kalantar M, Anvari-Moghaddam A. Resilience-constrained expansion planning of integrated power–gas–heat distribution networks. Applied Energy. 2022;323:119315.
[10] Habibifar R, Khoshjahan M, Saravi VS, Kalantar M. Robust energy management of residential energy hubs integrated with Power-to-X technology. In: 2021 IEEE Texas Power and Energy Conference (TPEC). IEEE; 2021. p. 1–6.
[11] Global installed energy storage capacity by scenario 2023 and 2030;. Available from: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/.
[12] Wilberforce T, Thompson J, Olabi AG. Classification of energy storage materials. In: Encyclopedia of Smart Materials. Elsevier; 2021. p. 8–14.
[13] Gilfillan D, Pittock J. Pumped storage hydropower for sustainable and low-carbon electricity grids in pacific rim economies. Energies. 2022;15(9):3139.
[14] Axsen J, Burke A, Kurani KS. Batteries for plugin hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs): Goals and the state of technology circa 2008. UC Davis: Institute of Transportation Studies. 2008;.
[15] Alam MM, Rahman MH, Ahmed MF, Chowdhury MZ, Jang YM. Deep learning based optimal energy management for photovoltaic and battery energy storage integrated home micro-grid system. Scientific Reports. 2022;12(1):15133.
[16] Technology cost trends and key material prices for lithium ionbatteries 2017-2022;. Available from: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/.
[17] Donadei S, Schneider GS. Compressed air energy storage. In: Storing Energy. Elsevier; 2022. p. 141–156.
[18] Budt M, Wolf D, Span R, Yan J. A review on compressed air energy storage: Basic principles, past milestones and recent developments. Applied energy. 2016;170:250–268.
[19] Wang J, Luo X, Krupke C, Dooner M. Compressed air energy storage. In: Energy Storage. World Scientific; 2017. p. 81–115.
[20] Yao E, Wang H, Wang L, Xi G, Mar´echal F. Thermo-economic optimization of a combined cooling, heating and power system based on small-scale compressed air energy storage. Energy Conversion and Management. 2016;118:377–386.
[21] Guo J, Ma R, Zou H. Compressed air energy storage and future development. In: Journal of Physics: Conference Series. vol. 2108. IOP Publishing; 2021. p. 012037.
[22] Bazdar E, Sameti M, Nasiri F, Haghighat F. Compressed air energy storage in integrated energy systems: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2022;167:112701.
[23] Razmi A, Soltani M, Aghanajafi C, Torabi M. Thermodynamic and economic investigation of a novel integration of the absorption-recompression refrigeration system with compressed air energy storage (CAES). Energy conversion and management. 2019;187:262–273.
[24] Cheekatamarla PK, Kassaee S, Abu-Heiba A, Momen AM. Near isothermal compressed air energy storage system in residential and commercial buildings: Techno-economic analysis. Energy. 2022;251:123963.
[25] Choudhury S. Flywheel energy storage systems: A critical review on technologies, applications, and future prospects. International transactions on electrical energy systems. 2021;31(9):e13024.
[26] Zhang J, Wang Y, Liu G, Tian G. A review of control strategies for flywheel energy storage system and a case study with matrix converter. Energy Reports. 2022;8:3948–3963.
[27] Li X, Palazzolo A. A review of flywheel energy storage systems: state of the art and opportunities. Journal of Energy Storage. 2022;46:103576.
[28] https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industry-reports/flywheel-energy-storagemarket-100756;.
[29] Barbour E, Wilson IG, Radcliffe J, Ding Y, Li Y. A review of pumped hydro energy storage development in significant international electricity markets. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews. 2016;61:421–432.
[30] https://www.statista.com/statistics/689667/pumped-storage-hydropower-capacity-world wide-by-country
[31] https://www.hydropower.org/publications/2021-hydropower-status-report
[32] Ali S, Stewart RA, Sahin O. Drivers and barriers to the deployment of pumped hydro energy storage applications: Systematic literature review. Cleaner Engineering and Technology. 2021;5:100281.
[33] Hunt JD, Byers E, Riahi K, Langan S. Comparison between seasonal pumped-storage and conventional reservoir dams from the water, energy and land nexus perspective. Energy conversion and management. 2018;166:385–401.
[34] Chen H, Xu Y, Liu C, He F, Hu S. Storing energy in China—An overview. Storing energy. 2022;p. 771–791.
[36] Morstyn T, Botha CD. Gravitational energy storage with weights. Encyclopedia of Energy Storage. 2022;3:64–73.
[37] Fyke A. The fall and rise of gravity storage technologies. Joule. 2019;3(3):625–630.
[38] Yolda¸s Y, Onen A, Muyeen S, Vasilakos AV, Alan ¨ I. Enhancing smart grid with microgrids: Challenges and opportunities. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2017;72:205–214.
[39] Tong W, Lu Z, Sun J, Zhao G, Han M, Xu J. Solid gravity energy storage technology: Classification and comparison. Energy Reports. 2022;8:926–934.
[40] Bowoto OK, Emenuvwe OP, Azadani MN. Gravitricity based on solar and gravity energy storage for residential applications. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering. 2021;12(3):503–516.
[42] Lai C, Thomas P. In: Capacitors/Supercapacitors Section — Encyclopedia of Energy Storage: Introduction to the Section; 2021
[43] Sun J, Luo B, Li H. A review on the conventional capacitors, supercapacitors, and emerging hybrid ion capacitors: past, present, and future. Advanced Energy and Sustainability Research. 2022;3(6):2100191.
[44] Molina-Ib´a˜nez EL, Colmenar-Santos A, RosalesAsensio E. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Systems (SMES) for Distributed Supply Networks. Springer; 2023.
[45] Lilia B, Hennig R, Hirschfeld P, Profeta G, Sanna A, Zurek E, et al. The 2021 room-temperature superconductivity roadmap. Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter. 2022;34(18):183002.
[46] Zhang H, Lin D, Wang D, Shi J, Zhu B, Ma S, et al. Design and control of a new power conditioning system based on superconducting magnetic energy storage. Journal of Energy Storage. 2022;51:104359.
[47] Chen X, Xie Q, Bian X, Shen B. Energysaving superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) based interline DC dynamic voltage restorer. CSEE Journal of Power and Energy Systems. 2021;8(1):238–248.
[48] Chen L, Zhang X, Han P, Chen H, Xu Y, Ren L, et al. Optimization of SMES-battery hybrid energy storage system for wind power smoothing. In: 2020 IEEE International Conference on Applied Superconductivity and Electromagnetic
Devices (ASEMD). IEEE; 2020. p. 1–2.
[49] Koehler U. General overview of non-lithium battery systems and their safety issues. Electrochemical Power Sources: Fundamentals, Systems, and Applications. 2019;p. 21–46.
[50] Sun C, Zhang H. Review of the development of first-generation redox flow batteries: iron-chromium system. ChemSusChem. 2022;15(1):e202101798.
[51] S´anchez-D´ıez E, Ventosa E, Guarnieri M, Trov`o A, Flox C, Marcilla R, et al. Redox flow batteries: Status and perspective towards sustainable stationary energy storage. Journal of Power Sources. 2021;481:228804.
[52] Zhen Y, Zhang C, Yuan J, Zhao Y, Li Y. A highperformance all-iron non-aqueous redox flow battery. Journal of Power Sources. 2020;445:227331.
[53] https://vanitec.org/latest-from-vanitec/article/eight-long-duration-energy-storage-projects
[54] Zhang H, Sun C. Cost-effective iron-based aqueous redox flow batteries for large-scale energy storage application: A review. Journal of Power Sources. 2021;493:229445.
[55] Doetsch C, Pohlig A. The use of flow batteries in storing electricity for national grids. In: Future Energy. Elsevier; 2020. p. 263–277.
[56] Nagde KR, Dhoble S. Li-S ion batteries: a substitute for Li-ion storage batteries. In: Energy Materials. Elsevier; 2021. p. 335–371.
[57] Shahjalal M, Roy PK, Shams T, Fly A, Chowdhury JI, Ahmed MR, et al. A review on secondlife of Li-ion batteries: Prospects, challenges, and issues. Energy. 2022;241:122881.
[58] Chen Y, Kang Y, Zhao Y, Wang L, Liu J, Li Y, et al. A review of lithium-ion battery safety concerns: The issues, strategies, and testing standards. Journal of Energy Chemistry. 2021;59:83–99.
[59] Ashuri M, Golmohammad M, Soleimany Mehranjani A, Faghihi Sani M. Al-doped Li7 La3 Zr2 O12 garnet-type solid
electrolytes for solid-state Li-Ion batteries. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics. 2021;32:6369–6378.
[60] Sharifi O, Golmohammad M, Soozandeh M, Oskouee M. Effects of Al Doping on the Properties of Li 7 La 3 Zr 2 O 12 Garnet Solid Electrolyte Synthesized by Combustion Sol-Gel Method. Iranian Journal of Materials Science & Engineering.
2022;19(3).
[61] Abbasi A, Mirhabibi A, Arabi H, Golmohammad M, Brydson R. Synthesis, characterization and electrochemical performances of γ-Fe 2 O 3 cathode material for Li-ion batteries. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics.
2016;27:7953–7961.
[62] Golmohammad M, Sazvar A, Shahraki MM, Golestanifard F. Synthesis and characterization of bar-like maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) as an anode for Li-ion batteries. Ceramics International. 2022;48(18):27148–27153.
[63] Golmohammad M, Golestanifard F, Mirhabibi A. Synthesis and characterization of maghemite as an anode for lithium-ion batteries. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 2016;11(8):6432–6442.
[64] Naskar A, Ghosh A, Roy A, Chattopadhyay K, Ghosh M. Polymer-Ceramic Composite Electrolyte for Li-Ion Batteries. Elsevier; 2022.
[65] Yu P, Li M, Wang Y, Chen Z. Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles: A review of topologies and energy management strategies. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2022;13(9):172.
[67] Tsais PJ, Chan L. Nickel-based batteries: Materials and chemistry. Electricity transmission, distribution and storage systems. 2013;p. 309–397.
[68] Hasa I, Mariyappan S, Saurel D, Adelhelm P, Koposov AY, Masquelier C, et al. Challenges of today for Na-based batteries of the future: From materials to cell metrics. Journal of Power Sources. 2021;482:228872.
[69] Dong Y, Wen P, Shi H, Yu Y, Wu ZS. Solidstate electrolytes for sodium metal batteries: recent status and future opportunities. Advanced Functional Materials. 2024;34(5):2213584.
[70] Ahmad H, Kubra KT, Butt A, Nisar U, Iftikhar FJ, Ali G. Recent progress, challenges, and perspectives in the development of solid-state electrolytes for sodium batteries. Journal of Power Sources. 2023;581:233518.
[71] Liu T, Xiang P, Li Y, Li Z, Sun H, Yang J, et al. In situ forming Na-Sn alloy/Na2S interface layer for ultrastable solid state sodium batteries. Advanced Functional Materials. 2024;34(32):2316528.
[72] Zhao L, Zhang T, Li W, Li T, Zhang L, Zhang X, et al. Engineering of sodium-ion batteries: Opportunities and challenges. Engineering. 2023;24:172–183.
[73] Karabelli D, Singh S, Kiemel S, Koller J, Konarov A, Stubhan F, et al. Sodium-based batteries: in search of the best compromise between sustainability and maximization of electric performance. Frontiers in Energy Research.
2020;8:605129.
[74] Li ZY, Li Z, Fu JL, Guo X. Sodium-ion conducting polymer electrolytes. Rare Metals. 2023;42(1):1–16.
[75] Xu X, Zhou D, Qin X, Lin K, Kang F, Li B, et al. A room-temperature sodium–sulfur battery with high capacity and stable cycling performance. Nature communications. 2018;9(1):3870.
[76] Wang Y, Zhou D, Palomares V, Shanmukaraj D, Sun B, Tang X, et al. Revitalising sodium–sulfur batteries for non-high-temperature operation: a crucial review. Energy & environmental science. 2020;13(11):3848–3879.
[77] Nundwe V, Makokha AB, Mwasiagi JI. Effect of electrolyte additives derived from natural plant extracts-Hibiscus Sabdariffa & Bidens Pilosa, on electrochemical performance of a leadacid battery. Cleaner Engineering and Technology. 2023;17:100705.
[78] Bhatt JM, Ramana P, Mehta JR. Experimental investigation on the impact of evaporative cooling based battery thermal management system on charging process of valve regulated lead acid batteries in E-bike. In: Journal of Physics: Conference Series. vol. 2070. IOP Publishing; 2021. p. 012087.
[79] Prengaman RD, Mirza A. Recycling concepts for lead–acid batteries. In: Lead-acid batteries for future automobiles. Elsevier; 2017. p. 575–598.
[80] Zhang S, Pan N. Supercapacitors Performance Evaluation. Advanced Energy Materials. 2015;5(6):1401401.
[81] Sharma K, Arora A, Tripathi SK, et al. Review of supercapacitors: Materials and devices. Journal of Energy Storage. 2019;21:801–825.
[82] Chakraborty S, Mary N. An overview on supercapacitors and its applications. Journal of The Electrochemical Society. 2022;169(2):020552.
[83] Abasali Karaj Abad Z, Nemati A, Malek Khachatourian A, Golmohammad M. Synthesis and characterization of rGO/Fe 2 O 3 nanocomposite as an efficient supercapacitor electrode material. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics. 2020;31:14998–15005.
[84] Nemati A, Khachatourian AM, Golmohammad M, et al. The Effect of Pre-Reduction of Graphene Oxide on the Electrochemical Performance of rGO-TiO 2 Nanocomposite. Iranian Journal of Materials Science & Engineering.
2020;17(4).
[85] Khiarak BN, Golmohammad M, Shahraki MM, Simchi A. Facile synthesis and self-assembling of transition metal phosphide nanosheets to microspheres as a high-performance electrocatalyst for full water splitting. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2021;875:160049.
[86] Sahin ME. Supercapacitor Applications and Developments, In Encyclopedia; 2022.
[87] Freund S, Abarr M, McTigue JD, Frick KL, Mathur A, Reindl D, et al. Thermal energy storage. In: Thermal, mechanical, and hybrid chemical energy storage systems. Elsevier; 2021. p. 65–137.
[88] https://www.energy.gov/eere/buildings/articles/design-and-integration-thermochemical-energystorage-tces- buildingsload
[89] https://www.man-es.com/energy-storage/campaigns/mosas
[90] Mohammadi A, Ahmadi MH, Bidi M, Joda F, Valero A, Uson S. Exergy analysis of a Combined Cooling, Heating and Power system integrated with wind turbine and compressed air energy storage system. Energy Conversion and
Management. 2017;131:69–78.
[92] Fuchs G, Lunz B, Leuthold M, Sauer DU. Technology overview on electricity storage. ISEA, Aachen, Juni. 2012;26.
[93] Bhandari R, Shah RR. Hydrogen as energy carrier: Techno-economic assessment of decentralized hydrogen production in Germany. Renewable Energy. 2021;177:915–931.
[94] Kolb S, M¨uller J, Luna-Jaspe N, Karl J. Renewable hydrogen imports for the German energy transition–A comparative life cycle assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2022;373:133289.
[95] Ghorbani-Moghadam T, Kompany A, Golmohammad M. The comparative study of doping Cu and Fe on the cathodic properties of La0. 7Sr1. 3CoO4 layered perovskite compound: to be used in IT-SOFC. Journal of Alloys and Compounds.
2022;926:166928.
[96] Ma J, Li Y, Grundish NS, Goodenough JB, Chen Y, Guo L, et al. The 2021 battery technology roadmap. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. 2021;54(18):183001.
[97] https://totalenergies.com/projects/electricity/battery-based-energy-storage-our-projects-andachievements
[98] https://www.spaceflightpower.com/deep-cyclelead-acid-batteries
[99] Baliyan A, Mwakitalima IJ, Jamil M, Rizwan M. Intelligent Energy Management System for a Smart Home Integrated with Renewable Energy Resources. International Journal of Photoenergy. 2022;2022(1):9607545.
[100] Vahabzad N, Mohammadi-Ivatloo B, AnvariMoghaddam A. Modeling hybrid energy systems for marine applications: Hybrid electric ships. In: Hybrid Technologies for Power Generation. Elsevier; 2022. p. 419–437.
[101] Lee S, Choi DH. Energy management of smart home with home appliances, energy storage system and electric vehicle: A hierarchical deep reinforcement learning approach. Sensors. 2020;20(7):2157.
[102] https://energypress.eu/investment-interestsoars-for-res- units-with-batteries
[103] Gupta N, Kaur N, Jain SK, Joshal KS. Smart grid power system. In: Advances in Smart Grid Power System. Elsevier; 2021. p. 47–71.
[104] Sharifi AH, Maghouli P. Energy management of smart homes equipped with energy storage systems considering the PAR index based on real-time pricing. Sustainable cities and society. 2019;45:579–587.
[105] Dalirian S; 2018.
[106] Saryani H; 2022.
[107] https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annualpercentage- change-renewables
[108] Feldman D, Ramasamy V, Fu R, Ramdas A, Desai J, Margolis R. US solar photovoltaic system and energy storage cost benchmark (Q12020). National Renewable Energy Lab.(NREL), Golden, CO (United States); 2021.
[109] Akhlaghi MM, Abbasizade F, Shafiei Alavijeh A, Hosseinalizadeh R, AmirAbadi Farahani MM. Investigation into opportunities and challenges of cross-border electricity trade in Iran. Scientia Iranica. 2023;30(3):1159–1168.
[110] Mauler L, Duffner F, Zeier WG, Leker J. Battery cost forecasting: a review of methods and results with an outlook to 2050. Energy & Environmental Science. 2021;14(9):4712–4739.
[112] 2024 Commercial Diesel Generator Maintenance Cost Guide;.
[113] Cole W, Karmakar A. Cost Projections for Utility-Scale Battery Storage: 2023 Update. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO (United States); 2023.
[114] https://esfccompany.com/en/articles/ solar- energy/ solar-power-plant-construction-cost/
[115] Cameron H. Impact on solar energy costs of tripling renewables capacity by 2030. United Kingdom: Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment; 2023.